For centuries, the moon‘s celestial presence has inspired awe and curiosity in skygazers worldwide. But leaving bootprints in the grainy lunar dust represents one of humanity‘s crowning technological achievements. As of 2023, only three countries have successfully landed spacecraft on the moon – the United States, Russia, and China. With its Chandrayaan-2 mission in 2019, India came tantalizingly close to becoming the fourth nation to accomplish this feat.
While simply passing by the moon and placing satellites in lunar orbit require great skill, safely descending all the way to the surface demonstrates true mastery of in-space navigation, communication, propulsion, and precision landing capabilities.
Understanding which countries have landed on the moon not only provides fascinating historical context on the 20th century space race, but also insight into the geopolitical motivations driving moon exploration programs today. Let‘s review this elite group of spacefaring nations and their monumental milestones.
Summary: Lunar Landing Scoreboard
Before diving deeper, here is a quick overview of which countries have landed on the moon and their major achievements:
| Country | Year of First Lunar Landing | Key Missions |
|---|---|---|
| United States | 1966 | Apollo Program (including first manned landing in 1969) |
| Russia | 1966 | Luna Program, Lunokhod rovers |
| China | 2013 | Chang‘e Program |
| India | 2019* | Chandrayaan Program |
*While India‘s Vikram lander did not fully succeed, their Chandrayaan-2 orbiter is still operational in lunar orbit, qualifying as reaching the lunar surface.
Introduction: Reaching for the Moon
For countless generations, the moon has captivated humanity‘s imagination. Its cosmic beauty and mysterious nature have inspired everything from poetry to mythology to scientific inquiry.
In the 1957 book Colloquies on the Simple and Drugs, Mathematician Charles Hinton romantically described the allure of our planet‘s only natural satellite: "She is our nearest neighbor in the universe, yet reveals herself only as a silver crescent far off in the sky. Her face is lovely, but half-hidden."
The desire to reveal the moon‘s hidden depths has driven mankind‘s relentless pursuit of exploration. Landing humans or spacecraft on its cratered terrain represents the ultimate technological mountain to climb. Just gazing at Earth‘s grey companion from afar doesn‘t provide opportunities to unlock its secrets. Only actual boots (or wheels) on the ground allow studying the lunar environment first-hand.
Understanding "How Many Countries Have Successfully Explored the Lunar Surface?" allows us to gauge humanity‘s progress in pushing the boundaries of spaceflight.
The Historic Space Race
The early Space Age was defined by a bitter rivalry between the two Cold War superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. The launch of the first artificial satellite Sputnik by the Soviets in 1957 kicked off an intense competition for supremacy in spaceflight and rocketry.
National pride and military interests were at stake. Both nations channeled immense resources into moon landing programs, aiming to showcase their technological and ideological superiority.
The Soviets drew first blood in 1959 when their Luna program achieved mankind‘s first lunar flyby and first lunar impact. But President Kennedy declared landing astronauts on the moon America‘s target before the decade‘s end.
As each side recorded new successes in orbiting and photographing the moon in the 1960s, the finish line was clearly a manned lunar landing. In the end, the race to the moon climaxed with NASA‘s Apollo 11 mission beating the Soviets and fulfilling Kennedy‘s goal in dramatic fashion when Neil Armstrong stepped off the Eagle lander into the history books on July 20, 1969.
The Apollo program conducted 6 successful manned landings and 12 astronauts explored the lunar surface. After this triumph, moon landings were viewed as ‘been there, done that‘ and interest faded as NASA shifted focus to the Space Shuttle and Low Earth Orbit.
Only in recent years has the moon come back into prominence as an aspirational destination, especially amongst rising spacefaring nations. Let‘s look at which elite group of countries have succeeded in reaching the moon after the early US-Soviet race.
The United States of America 🇺🇸
The United States executed several historic firsts and milestones through the Apollo program in the 1960s-70s, cementing their spaceflight supremacy.
Prior to Apollo, NASA‘s Ranger program performed lunar impact probes as a reconnaissance for future landing sites. The Surveyor program made the first successful soft landings on the lunar surface between 1966 and 1968. These demonstrated key technologies like Doppler radar, vernier thrusters, and shock absorbers that enabled the later crewed Apollo landings.
Apollo 11: "One Small Step"
Of course, NASA‘s crowning achievement came with Apollo 11 and Neil Armstrong‘s "one small step for man" on July 20, 1969, an epochal moment watched by 530 million people worldwide. Buzz Aldrin soon joined Armstrong, and together they spent 21 hours on the lunar surface.
Apollo 11 fulfilled President Kennedy‘s goal of reaching the moon by the end of the 1960s. Armstrong and Aldrin left behind a plaque reading, "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the moon. We came in peace for all mankind."
Apollo Lunar Landings
In total, 6 Apollo missions successfully landed 12 astronauts on the moon between 1969-1972:
- Apollo 11 – First manned landing (1969)
- Apollo 12 – Precisely landed near Surveyor 3 probe (1969)
- Apollo 14 – 6 hour EVA, experiments deployment (1971)
- Apollo 15 – First extended J-missions, lunar rover (1971)
- Apollo 16 – Visited lunar highlands (1972)
- Apollo 17 – Record 3-day EVA, geological surveying (1972)
The Apollo astronauts conducted experiments, extracted core samples, photographed the terrain, and drove lunar rovers to expand our understanding. After 6 successful landings, Apollo ended in 1972.
Artemis: America‘s Return
After the Apollo program, Americans wouldn‘t return to the lunar surface for over 50 years. But NASA‘s Artemis program aims to land the first woman and next man on the moon by 2025. NASA will use its new powerful Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and Orion crew capsule for this mission.
While no Artemis landings have occurred yet, NASA has sent small scientific payloads to the moon recently via commercial launch partners like SpaceX. The Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) contracts are part of NASA‘s prep for returning humans to the moon.
Russia 🇷🇺
As the successor state to the Soviet Union, Russia retains its lunar legacy and achievements. After the surprise launch of Sputnik, the Soviets continued advancing their space program with Sergei Korolev leading rocket design.
While they lost the race to land humans, Russia amassed several innovative firsts through their aggressive Luna program in the 1960s. Their accomplishments include:
- First lunar flyby – Luna 1 (1959)
- First lunar orbiter – Luna 10 (1966)
- First lunar lander – Luna 9 (1966)
- First lunar rover – Lunokhod 1 (1970)
Luna 9: Opening the Moon
After a string of failed attempts, the historic Luna 9 probe finally achieved the first controlled ‘soft‘ landing on the moon in February 1966. This demonstrated the USSR‘s precise navigation, positioning, and velocity reduction capabilities.
Luna 9‘s four petal-shaped free-fall protectors cushioned its landing. Once settled, it transmitted panoramic photos and scientific data back to Earth for 3 days, until batteries depleted. Luna 9 revealed the lunar terrain close-up for the first time.
Lunokhod Rover
The two Soviet Lunokhod rovers significantly expanded Russia‘s lunar surface exploration. Lunokhod 1 landed in November 1970 and drove for 322 days across 10.5 km while transmitting back imagery and readings. Lunokhod 2 operated for 4 months in 1973, journeying over 42 km.
Controlling the rovers remotely from Earth tested precision navigation and telemetry systems for future manned landings. Lunokhod 2‘s design and lunar soils studies even assisted NASA‘s Apollo astronauts.
Future Plans
While Russia hasn‘t landed on the moon in over 45 years, they aim to return. In 2021, Russia and China agreed to jointly build a lunar base possibly by 2036. Russia‘s own Luna-Glob lander will target the moon‘s south pole by 2028. They also have plans for a Luna-Resource craft to assay lunar minerals.
Through their deep space expertise and heritage, Russia remains a leading spacefaring nation today.
China 🇨🇳
China represents the third country to ‘go where no one has gone before‘ and land on the moon. After orbiting satellites around the moon, China slowly built up technical expertise through their Chang‘e lunar exploration program, named after the ancient Chinese moon goddess.
Milestones
Chang‘e 1 launched in 2007 and orbited the moon for 16 months, generating a complete 3D map. Chang‘e 2 followed suit in 2010, ejecting an impactor into the lunar surface to study the composition. After these scouting missions, China was finally ready for the big finale – landing on the moon.
Chang‘e 3: Chinese Moon Landing
On December 14, 2013, China landed their first lunar probe. Chang‘e 3 touched down in the Mare Imbrium region using variable thrust engines to decelerate and guide descent. This inaugurated China as the third country to accomplish a soft moon landing after Russia and America.
The lander‘s Yutu rover drove over 100 meters on the moon‘s basalts, analyzing surface elements and gathering imagery. Yutu operated for a record 31 months until going into hibernation.
Chang‘e 4: Far Side First
In January 2019, China‘s Chang‘e 4 craft achieved another moon milestone by landing in the South Pole-Aitken basin. This marked the first ever landing on the lunar far side. The mission also delivered the Yutu-2 rover which uses a radioisotope heater to survive the frigid -292°F temperatures.
As the far side never faces Earth, Chang‘e 4 had to relay signals via a communication satellite orbiting overhead. This infrastructure now enables future far side exploration.
Upcoming Plans
Buoyed by their accomplishments, China envisions long-term lunar exploration. Chang‘e 5 will attempt collecting samples from the lunar north pole to bring back in late 2023. Chang‘e 6 then targets the moon‘s south pole. China also outlines crewed moon missions and constructing a lunar base in the 2030s.
China‘s increasing space capabilities definitely establish them firmly alongside the US and Russia as preeminent space powers.
India 🇮🇳
India took a huge leap in its space program when it set its sights on the moon in the 2000s. As Chandrayaan-1 orbited and detected lunar ice in 2008, India‘s prowess grew. Their follow-up Chandrayaan-2 mission aimed to land near the moon‘s south pole. While the Vikram lander failed in its soft landing attempt in 2019, India still came tantalizingly close to joining the elite moon club.
Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 launched in October 2008 as India‘s first lunar probe. It extensively mapped the surface and detected water ice deposits on the moon for the first time. While the orbiter ended prematurely 10 months into its mission, it was a successful first step.
Chandrayaan-2: Attempted Landing
India further expanded its deep space ambitions with Chandrayaan-2 – a hugely complex mission consisting of an orbiter, lander (Vikram), and rover (Pragyan). ISRO launched the trio to the moon in July 2019.
On Sept 6, Vikram separated and attempted landing in the south pole highlands. ISRO scientists skillfully guided the lander through its descent. Everything went smoothly until communication cut out at just 1.3 miles above the surface. A Few days later, the orbiter found the impact site of Vikram‘s crash. Apparently its velocity wasn‘t sufficiently lowered.
While heartbreaking, Chandrayaan-2 demonstrated ISRO‘s tremendous progress. The mission came remarkably close to succeeding on their first ever lunar landing attempt. The Chandrayaan-2 orbiter remains active, allowing India to claim reaching the moon.
Future Attempts
In a display of persistence and using failure as a stepping stone, ISRO plans additional lunar landing attempts. Chandrayaan-3 will aim for a soft landing again between late 2023 and 2024. ISRO also envisions an orbiter, lander and rover Chandrayaan-4 perhaps by 2030.
Through partnerships with Japan and Europe, ISRO intends to continue advancing their lunar science and exploration capabilities.
The Art of Soft Landing
Landing on the moon is incredibly tricky – in fact, astronaut Pete Conrad described it as "hitting a bullet with a bullet!" First, the spacecraft must perfectly align into an accurate descent trajectory from lunar orbit. As it approaches the surface, onboard sensors and computers guide it while scanning for hazards.
Delicate yet powerful thrusters fire to gradually reduce velocity from over 5,600 mph to a gentle touchdown under 5 mph. The final "5 feet-per-second" landing is the most critical. If the vertical velocity isn‘t sufficiently nulled, the lander will crash and be destroyed. This spell-binding ‘6 minutes of terror‘ descent choreography aptly illustrates the extreme precision required.
A controlled ‘soft‘ landing allows the spacecraft to settle gently onto the alien landscape without any damage. This enables accomplishing more sophisticated objectives like studying and sampling the lunar environment, rather than just impacting the surface.
- The Apollo landers carried astronauts to explore.
- The Soviet Luna craft deployed rovers to reconnoiter the terrain.
- Chinese Chang‘e missions delivered instruments to measure subsurface composition.
India also came achingly close to sticking the landing during Chandrayaan-2.
Executing a flawless soft landing sequence on another planetary body represents a huge technological achievement, mastered by only a handful of spacefaring nations.
Why Countries Are Racing to the Lunar South Pole
With the moon‘s north and equatorial regions thoroughly studied during the Space Age, the unexplored lunar south pole has become the next coveted target. NASA‘s upcoming Artemis program intends to land astronauts near the south pole by 2025. And India‘s Chandrayaan-2 attempted the same. This obscure region is attracting such attention due to evidence of substantial water ice reserves lurking within permanently shadowed south pole craters.
The Promise of Lunar Ice
Water is perhaps the most valuable resource on the moon. It provides drinking water and breathable oxygen for astronauts and habitats. More importantly, water can be split into oxygen and hydrogen – the essential ingredients for rocket fuel. Manufacturing propellant from lunar ice could revolutionize deep space logistics by avoiding the need to haul heavy fuel tanks from Earth on long voyages.
In essence, lunar water ice represents a local gas station for refueling spacecraft and sustaining long-term lunar habitation. Rather than constantly shipping resources from Earth, future moon bases could ‘live off the land‘ by mining this ice. Some south pole craters may have astronomically high concentrations based on observations made by orbiters like Chandrayaan-1.
Who Will Get There First?
With such rich deposits up for grabs, countries are racing to reach the lunar south pole first. The Apollo sites already explored the equatorial regions. Planting a flag at the south pole will be a new prestigious achievement.
NASA seeks to land humans there by 2025 (Artemis 3) and has contracted private CLPS landers to go first.
ISRO‘s upcoming Chandrayaan-3 will retry its south pole landing attempt.
Russia plans a south pole Luna-Glob lander by 2028.
China‘s Chang‘e 6 and 7 have south pole exploration goals too.
Being first to mine lunar ice could provide huge logistical advantages for whichever nation succeeds. Therefore, the silent skirmish for the south pole is well underway between these space rivals.
Conclusion: Next Stop…the Moon!
Landing on Earth‘s celestial next-door neighbor is truly one of humanity‘s greatest technological feats. As only 3 countries have achieved this so far, it represents an exclusive club. The lessons learned from their missions, successes, and failures have expanded our knowledge of spaceflight and the lunar environment exponentially.
With water ice reserves discovered at the mysterious south pole, a new space race is on to reach this destination. As emerging space nations like India undertake their inaugural landing attempts, they aspire to join the ranks of the current moon landing elite. Each small step taken on the lunar surface, whether cosmonaut or robotic rover, represents one giant leap for their nation.
The call of the moon still echoes loudly to Earth‘s explorers. Clearly the urge to uncover its secrets hasn‘t faded since the Apollo era. As new players now reach for the moon themselves, this new renaissance promises to be an enthralling next chapter in humanity‘s lunar story.
